Chapter 20.
The Ultimate End of Faith (Part 1)
The debacle of Jonestown and the Peoples Temple
adherents in Guyana in the winter of 1978 (and now such movements as
Branch Davidians and Aum Shinrikyo in Japan) expressed an ultimate in
blind faith, and has given rise to serious reflection on the nature of
religion and religious commitment. From a Buddhist perspective, one of
the most striking aspects of that tragedy was the virtual absolute rule
of Jim Jones and the blind devotion of his followers. The history of
religion evidences frequent confusion of faith and fanaticism.
Unquestioning obedience often becomes a requirement of that faith. The
history of Buddhist teaching reveals an awareness of the deceptions and
delusions involved in religion itself. Buddhism is critical of anything
that would substitute for the truth. The principle of Emptiness itself
must be emptied. Dogen Zenji declared that Buddhism means to transcend
Buddhism, that Buddhism questions all dogmatic, religious assertions
however pious or appealing as a sign of our inveterate egoism. For the
Buddhist, the issue is not how religious one may be, but whether the ego
is transcended.
In Pure Land Buddhism, some believers regard the Pure
Land as an other-worldly, naive heaven, but as seen in our early
discussion of myth as truth, the Pure Land as a symbol has a spiritual
dimension, and expresses the ideal of ego-transcendence. Religious faith
also must provide a sense of hope and final fulfillment of its ideals.
For Shinran, the Pure Land was specifically identified with Nirvana --
not merely as a secondary launching platform for the attainment of
Nirvana itself. For him, it was not a mere condescension to human
inability and weakness, a holding out of the carrot of rebirth in a
heaven to stimulate faith. Above and beyond the final goal of a Pure
Land of bliss where the departed may reside, Shinran emphasized the
return to this world in wondrous Buddhahood to save all other beings.
The end of religion is not oso (going to the Pure Land), but genso
(returning from the Pure Land). Religion is not a selfish preoccupation
to gain security and benefit for oneself. It is, rather, a process
whereby through one's own faith, one helps others to faith (as in the
case of the myokonin Genza). One's own faith becomes the existential
condition whereby faith may arise in others.
Although Mahayana Buddhism is a missionary tradition,
the aspect of mission is not clearly formulated as a task or goal of its
numerous institutions. Outgoing compassion is generally expressed in the
indirect, symbolic, magical eko (transfer of merit) rather than in the
direct organized activity which we identify generally as missionary
activity. In modern times, prejudice against missions as performed by
Christian sects reinforce this tendency of Buddhism to slough off its
sense of mission. Such missions as Buddhism does carry out are more
passive and permeative rather than active and direct. Since Buddhism
generally became identified with the folk culture of the countries to
which it spread, any impetus to mission was limited. Yet, in the
contemporary era, the sense of mission needs to be developed in a more
outgoing articulation of the ideals, values, and potential of Buddhism
to deal with the problem of life. The issue in such a mission is not
aggressiveness, but a reaching out to suffering beings in all areas of
their need, a becoming part of the great compassion of the Vow.
In their sense of disseminating the teachings,
Buddhist sutras usually involve a mission. The stories they tell present
the core of Buddha's teachings to the world. The tradition derived from
the three Pure Land sutras has been noted particularly for the aspect of
hope which it offers to ordinary men and women through birth in the Pure
Land as the basis for ultimate enlightenment. The presentation of the
sutras certainly implies a mission to all beings.
Prior to Shinran, the Pure Land was regarded as a
launching platform to enlightenment, though for the masses it was an end
in itself to the sufferings in this world. When we come to Shinran, we
can observe that for him, the Pure Land was Nirvana and was therefore
not a launching platform or a secondary phase but the ultimate end of
life. He depicted the birth in the Pure Land (oso) as the attainment of
Buddhahood, and thus set the stage for a more penetrating understanding
of this concept. Although this distinction was not new with him, Shinran
emphasized that there were two aspects to Amida's transfer of merit on
behalf of beings. There was the aspect of going to the Pure Land (oso)
and the aspect of return (genso). It is this latter aspect that has
central meaning for any discussion of the ultimate end of faith as
understood in Shin Buddhist teachings, and as an illustration of how
Shinran conceived of religion in a totally non-egoistic way.
Based on the Vows of Amida, Shinran declared that the
goal of faith is the salvation not only of oneself, but of all beings.
Popular Pure Land tradition has generally stressed the aspect of
"going" since obviously the issue of mortality appears most
immediate. However, in so doing, religion has been made an exercise in
egoistic self-concern to assure one's salvation. In the consideration of
Shinshu in the modern world, it may be possible to reinterpret the
futuristic element in the principle of Return to a present reality in
which our daily actions and lives as well as the efforts of others might
be considered as Buddha in the world working for the salvation of all.
Saichi was able to see this in terms of the Pure Land itself:
"My joy is that while in this world of shaba
I have been given the Pure Land --
'Namu-amida-butsu!'" [1]
He also identifies himself and Tathagata:
"O Saichi, who is Nyoraisan?
He is no other than myself!" [2]
Everything in the world is, for Saichi, the
manifestation of Amida's compassion:
"How grateful!
When I think of it, all is by him (Amida's) grace.
O Saichi what do you mean by it?
Ah, yes, his grace is real fact.
This Saichi was made by his grace;
The dress I wear was made by his grace;
The food I eat was made by his grace;
The footgear I put on was made by his grace;
Every other thing we have in this world was all made by his grace,
Including the bowl and the chopsticks;
Even this workshop where I work was made by his grace;
There is really nothing that is not the 'Namu-amida-butsu!'
How happy I am for all this!
'Namu-amida-butsu'" [3]
Just as ki and ho give ultimate meaning to the world
in which we live, they -- together with the principle of genso --
establish an active side in Shin Buddhism, a mission for men and women
of faith to fulfill and make real. The compassion of Amida expresses
itself in many unseen and hidden ways as the world itself, and to be an
active part of that compassion in a spontaneous, non-ego-centered way is
the ultimate end of faith in Shin Buddhism.
Undoubtedly, in the past, the social circumstances of
history limited the active side of this perspective from expressing
itself, but in the modern age, the fulfillment of meaning in human
existence lies not in merely being recipients of meaning, but in
becoming bearers of that meaning. Namu Amida Butsu is an existential
response that can signify this active expression. The embodiment of
ego-transcendence in those who experience the one thought-moment of
settled faith can ameliorate and help change the suffering of a
self-centered, ego-focused humanity.
Such an active expression of the ultimate end of faith
involves two other aspects in Shinshu, in Buddhism of the Pure Land
schools, and in Buddhism in general. One of these aspects is the limits
of human compassion and the other is the relationship between filial
piety and our role as human beings, both of which are deeply involved in
any consideration of the ethical or social aspects of faith. These will
be taken up in more detail in subsequent discussions.
Any such exploration of Shinran's thought and
teachings inevitably leads to a consideration of the style of life and
action which grows out of the internalization of that thought and those
teachings. Every religious view implies some stance or approach to the
problem of living and human relations, and this is true also of Shinshu.
The principles of "neither monk nor layman,"
of joy and gratitude, of Nembutsu as total existence, the examples of
myokonin and the idea of genso (the return to this world as Buddha),
embody the understanding that our very lives should manifest the reality
of Buddha; compassion and wisdom. We are to give those qualities
existential reality and not merely an abstract and idealistic
verbalization. In fact, the principle of absolute Other-Power which
distinguishes Shinran's religious view demands inquiry as to how
Shinran's way of life, implied by his teachings, significantly differs
from that of traditional Buddhism. Or, to put it in more experiential
terms: How does one live egolessly in an egoistic world? How does one
keep faith and life together? If there is only faith, there is
formalism. If there is only action, there may be no depth. What is a
non-moralistic ethic?
In his study "Shinran's Philosophy and Faith," Terada
Yakichi indicates that it was Shinran's achievement to bring life and
faith together in the history of Buddhism. That is, Shinran made
Buddhism a part of daily life and in that way can be said to have
originated laypeople's Buddhism. Terada notes that through its history,
Buddhism was separated from ordinary life through the establishment of
monastic existence so that, in time, Buddhism became very difficult for
laypeople to understand. As faith became separated from ordinary life,
it also became more formalistic. Terada sees this process at work in the
development of Hinayana which then stimulated the evolution of Mahayana.
In Mahayana, it was the rise of Pure Land which in its evolutionary turn
once again tried to bring faith and life together. The igyodo (way of
easy practice) was a problem revolving around monks and a way of a life
of faith, a way which took a bold leap with Shinran when he made the
evil person the true object of Amida's Vow and totally abolished the
distinction of monk and layperson. Legitimation of marriage, and the
eating of meat were two changes in lifestyle in Shinran's fellowships.
There is no question that Shinran's interpretation of Buddhism opened
the way to a new style of Buddhist life in his age -- but what does it
mean for now, for our own age, for we modern, alienated, absurd, and
lonely men and women of this mappo era?
The ultimate test of any system of thought is its
meaning in everyday life, its survival as idea translated into terms of
ordinary experience. Societies through the ages have recognized dangers
in free religious commitment and have made efforts to restrain or dilute
any commitment which might expose the exploitation or oppression in a
society. There have been numerous examples of this in the persecution of
Socrates, Jesus, the prophets of Israel, Zoroaster, Honen, and his
disciples including Shinran, and Nichiren. In diluting religion and
blurring its critical focus, society encourages two approaches. First,
religion focuses on this-worldly success defined in terms of the
prevailing order. It promises physical and mental benefits from its
practice. It highlights the immediate needs of individuals for health,
wealth, and security which it grants at the expense of conformity to
established social powers. Secondly, it focuses attention on the
afterlife, making conformity to present social norms a means of securing
a good destiny in that afterlife. For this reason, magical and
other-worldly religions are often deficient in social criticism.
Society fears any religion that gives an individual an
independent basis for moral judgment on affairs related to his life. We
can trace such issues in American and Japanese societies. By reducing
religion to a partial and pragmatic concern, its essential moral impact
is blunted, and although societies have been interested in accomplishing
this, they have not been without ethical orientation. In all types of
religious traditions there can be distinguished two types of moral
concern.
First, there is the communal, socially-supported, prudential
ethic. It usually takes the form of negative abstention -- the things an
individual is to avoid in order to not receive punishment or be exposed
to shame and public censure. An ethic of this type aims at preserving
the status quo and at avoidance of individual problems. It is a
system-maintenance ethic and generally stresses how to get along within
the system. The second ethical orientation is more positive and
out-going. It faces problems created by the system by placing individual
good before the good of the system. It is motivated by compassion, love,
or justice, and seeks higher goals than mere social order. In our time,
it has been seen in the call for justice versus law and order. If the
first ethic is other-directed, this latter is inner-directed, being
based on some type of universal philosophy. The first ethic stresses
submission. The second stresses freedom. The first is reactive. The
second is responsive-responsible.
It is clear from a survey of the basic concepts making
up Shinran's thought that his religion falls in the latter category. It
is transcendent religion, with its understanding of reality as only what
can be spoken of between Buddhas. Its path of religious activity is
based on working which is no working, a religion in which Amida Buddha
has emerged from the formless, inconceivable Nature as the means to
guide beings to salvation -- a religion not of man's devising, but the
result of the primordial aspiration in the heart of reality symbolized
in the work of the Bodhisattva Dharmakara. It is a religion which
illumines human existence, and with all its evils, embraces it totally.
Faith is thus for these reasons indescribable, inconceivable, and
profound.
Transcendent does not mean "escape from." It
means "more than" and is the something more which provides the
person with a true sense of meaning and value, which places into
question every lesser loyalty, value, and obligation. The transcendent
nature of Buddhism was indicated in ancient sutras which stipulated that
monks do not revere kings, parents, or gods. For Shinran, this
transcendence is mediated into history through faith in which -- in one
thought-moment -- the person simultaneously perceives his or her own
sinfulness and the embrace of Amida's compassion. Having experienced
faith, one's ultimate destiny is assured and one can participate more
determinedly in the world. Shinran stated, there is no good superior to
the Nembutsu, and no evil that can obstruct it. His standard of judgment
is raised on all claims -- including his own:
"I know, on the whole, neither good nor evil! For were
I to know good so thoroughly that the Tathagata must regard it as good,
then I should be sure to know what is good. And were I to know evil so
thoroughly that the Tathagata must look on it as evil, then I should be
certain to know what is evil. With us, therefore, filled with sin and
lust as we are in the transient world, unreliable and unsteady as a
burning house, everything is sheer falsehood and nought is stable and
sure." [4]
It is against this background that we should view
Shinran's challenge to his age, and ours. He did not counsel us to
accept complacently the conditions of the world. Without standing apart
in arrogant self-righteousness, he challenged hypocrisy in all areas.
Any attempt to assess the ethical orientation resulting from Shinran's
philosophy of existence must taken into account the ethical norms
imposed in his time on members of the society. These norms were
considered valid because they were expressions of some objective moral
order -- such as the law of karma in traditional Buddhism or Heaven in
Confucianism, in much the same fashion as, in western Christianity, the
objective moral order was considered to be the expression of duty to
God. In the Shinshu tradition, the distinction of religious existence
and social life came to be formulated in the principle of Shinzokunitai,
the two truths of Absolute and Conventional.
This distinction is derived from Nagarjuna in the
early philosophical evolution of Mahayana. It was, however, given
emphasis by Rennyo in the 15th century to deal with the activities
of Shin believers in Japan and to avoid problems with the political
authorities. In his letter of February 17, 1474, Rennyo advises his
disciples who have heard the teachings and are confirmed in their faith
that they should pursue their religious faith in their hearts and not
act scandalously or contemptuously towards people of other schools.
Wherever we may be, on the road or at home, says Rennyo, we should not
praise such actions. With respect to the Shugo, the guards who act as
police and the manorial lords who exact their tribute from the people,
believers should not act rudely, claiming they have attained faith.
Instead, they should all the more yield in lawsuits or disputes.
Believers are urged not to neglect all the gods, Buddhas, and
bodhisattvas because all are implied in the six characters:
Namu-amida-butsu. In addition, they were urged to consider worldly
benevolence and righteousness and fundamental. Observing the secular law
externally, they should within their hearts and minds, cultivate the
Other-power faith. So in Rennyo's "Goichidaikikigaki" we read:
"Law should be worn on the brow: the Buddhist teaching
should be stored deep in one's inner heart. So said the Shonin. One
should be straight and rigid in one's own ways of life (jingi)."
[5]
As a result of this distinction, the absolute truth
was the realm of religion, belief, and faith, while following the mores
and demands of the secular society was the area of conventional truth.
By this distinction, from the 15th century on, the full impact of
the ethical implications of Shinran's teachings were unable to manifest
themselves in society at large. Indeed, they often surfaced only as a
characteristic of those wondrously good people, the myokonin.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In Shinran's thought, the ultimate end of religion
is:
a) going to the Pure Land (oso) b) returning from the Pure Land
(genso) c) gaining security and benefits
2. Which of the following statements concerning
Buddhist missionary activity is false?
a) The aspect of mission is not clearly formulated as
a task or goal in most Buddhist institutions b) Buddhist missions, when carried out, tend to be passive and
permeative rather than active and direct c)
Influenced by the missionary zeal of Christians in Japan, Buddhist
missions today are aggressive and widespread 3. For Shinran,
the Pure Land was:
a) a launching platform to enlightenment b) Nirvana
itself c) a secondary phase 4. According to Terada
Yakichi, Shinran's
great achievement in the history of Buddhism was that he:
a) made Buddhism a part of the daily life of laypeople
b) widened the gap between monks and laypeople c) promoted the monastic way of
life
5. In diluting religion and blurring its critical
focus, society encourages two approaches. Which of the following is not
one of these approaches? It:
a) gives the individual an independent basis for
moral judgment b) encourages conformity to established social powers by
focusing on
this-worldly success c) focuses attention on the afterlife so as to enforce conformity to
present social norms
6. Shinran's religion can be called
"transcendent" because:
a) it is separate from human existence b) it is a faith that people can never truly
attain c) its basis for understanding reality is Tathagata (Buddha), not man.
7. In Shinshu tradition, the two truths of Absolute and
Conventional (Shinzokunitai) were emphasized by Rennyo to distinguish
between which of the following?
a) Amida Buddha and lesser gods b) religious existence and social
life c) myokonin and ordinary laypeople
Thought Questions
1. The author says that "for the Buddhist, the
issue is not how religious one may be, but whether the ego is
transcended." How would you interpret this statement? What does
"being religious" mean to you? And, how does this perspective
differ from the attitude taken by other religious groups you know?
2. The author suggests that in the contemporary era,
the Buddhist "sense of mission" needs to be developed so that
the ideals, values, and potential of Buddhism are articulated and
expressed in compassionate ways. What do you think? What do you think is
the "mission" of the Buddhist? In what ways do you think the
teachings could or should be disseminated? Give reasons.
3. What is the ultimate end of faith as understood in
Shin Buddhist teachings? What relevance does this have for modern
people?
Bibliography
Haguri, Gyodo: "The Awareness of Self"
Hongwanji International Center: "Shinran in the
Contemporary World"
Otani University: "Jodo Shinshu"
Notes
[1] D.T. Suzuki, "Mysticism: Christian and
Buddhist," P. 194 [2] Ibid., p. 175 [3] Ibid., p.
202 [4] Ryukyo Fujimoto, "Tannisho,"
Conclusion [5] Kosho Yamamoto, "Words of St. Rennyo, p.
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