Chapter 24.
Shin Buddhism in the Modern Ethical Context
As we have noted earlier, worldwide social and
intellectual problems have weakened the spiritual influence of major
world religions. Everywhere secularization, modernization,
industrialization have challenged traditional faiths to defend
themselves on their own merits, that is, in terms of their ability to
enhance the quality of modern life.
Within the modern context, the Pure Land tradition
with its apparent other-worldliness has frequently provided critics of
religion with a good example of the irrelevance of Buddhism. However,
the struggles of Jodo Shinshu against the lords of medieval Japan show
that such faith may not always be passive, weak in spirit, or incapable
to taking a stand.
We must note also that early western students of
Buddhism regarded it as an ethical religion. However, Buddhism is not
essentially a prescriptive ethical system, binding on all society,
though it has established precepts and disciplines as the basis for
progress toward enlightenment.
Shinran also stands within the general Buddhist
tradition in advocating ethical action as an aspect of spiritual or
religious responsibility and responsiveness to the compassion one has
experienced. Ethical activity is an aspect of the living out of faith.
Consequently, Shinran does not lay down specific rules for behavior as a
qualification for salvation or membership in the community.
A further observation is necessary in approaching this
subject. In our contemporary situation it is common to hear people ask,
what does your religion say about this or that problem? Religious people
find it difficult to come up with specific and precise answers based on
their tradition. We must understand, however, that all religious
traditions, including Jodo Shinshu, originated in the pre-modern period
where our social and technological problem could not be imagined or
expected. The increasing scientific and secular complexity of modern
life has raised issues of human worth, dignity and welfare as well as
global environmental concerns.
While we cannot expect precise and uncompromising
fixed answers to all problems, the spiritual traditions can assist in
value formation and establishing priorities. Religious faith can offer
perspectives and insight into the human condition that will enable
people to approach problems more sensitively, openly and reciprocally.
Truly religious persons will more share insight rather than seek
domination for their viewpoint, and they will be more cognizant of the
broad range of individual needs and circumstances.
Shinran's understanding of the unconditional,
all-inclusive vision of Amida's compassion as it illuminated his own
passion-ridden ego provides a basis for the contribution of Shin
Buddhism to the contemporary dialogue. As we Shin Buddhists combine a
deep awareness of the working of the Vow in our own lives and a more
competent grasp of the problems of our world through being intelligently
informed, we can join with others in common struggle to secure the
welfare of all beings. Despite our limited and seemingly petty
individual efforts, we will perceive the Great Compassion at work in our
world and lives, thereby gaining a deeper sense of life-meaning in an
otherwise absurd world of despair. In such a context religious faith
enables us to retain our sense of human worth, despite the
dehumanization that challenges and undermines our most cherished values.
There are various issues which require attention in
the discussion of Shin Buddhism in society. These include consideration
of the social implications of Pure Land Buddhism, Shinran's
self-understanding and religious orientation as the background for his
ethical perspective and the concept of the two truths, absolute and
conventional which developed in Shin Buddhism to correlate faith and
social obligation.
Social Implications of Pure Land
Buddhism
Though Pure Land Buddhism is frequently criticized for
its other worldly, social passivity, its teachings have implications
which can be applied socially. The foundational story of the creation of
the Pure Land by Dharmakara Bodhisattva narrated in the Larger Pure Land
Sutra implies a judgment on the character of life in this world. The
ancient king, surveying the mass of suffering in the world, renounces
his throne to devote himself to establish an ideal world where all forms
of suffering would be abolished.
What is socially significant in this story is that the
kind abdicates his throne and recognizes that political power alone is
not sufficient to bring meaning and salvation to all beings. Through
this story, the self-sacrificing altruism of Mahayana Buddhism is
clearly depicted together with a social awareness that the highest
endeavor is to establish ideal conditions for the happiness and welfare
of all beings.
The Primal Vows which are an essential element of the
story teach that salvation and the welfare of beings are not merely
universal in scope but are indivisible. No one truly gains liberation
who does not work to share it with others. The story implies
egalitarianism and universality which are fundamental for vital social
concern.
The Pure Land, though beyond this world, recognizes
the importance of the environment in fulfilling ideals. The Pure Land
represents the ideal context for realizing enlightenment. The activities
of the Bodhisattva in establishing ideal conditions for enlightenment
provides a model for modern people to labor to improve society so that
all people may have opportunity to realize their potentials. It could
also be applied to ecological thinking, motivating efforts for a more
healthy physical environment.
The Sutra itself shows great concern for moral
conditions when it describes the effects of wickedness. It declares that
with the help of Buddha, these evils are abandoned and people attain
good.
In Japan, Honen established the Nembutsu as the sole
practice leading to enlightenment because it did not require a person to
be rich, educated, wise, well traveled, or well disciplined in
religious practice or perfect in morality. Honen implicitly criticized
the aristocratic elitism of Japanese society in his time. As a
consequence, his teaching was repressed and his followers persecuted.
For Shinran, Pure Land teaching was presented as a
matter of this world. Faith bestowed by Amida gives certainty of future
enlightenment now. We are freed from anxieties toward the future.
Shinran's understanding of the all-encompassing quality of Amida's
compassion released people from superstitious folk religion. He shows
great interest in justice when he criticizes the authorities for exiling
Honen and his disciples, including Shinran as unjust and without proper
investigation or due process. In his Wasan (hymns), he quotes Prince
Shotoku's constitution which states that if there is no impartiality on
the part of the officials, the complaints of the rich are resolved like
throwing rocks into water, while for the poor it is like throwing water
into a rock.
When we survey the Pure Land tradition, we see that it
is inspired by an ever-expanding vision of Amida's compassion. It
embodies a humane idealism which neither discriminates nor rejects any
person. It aims to inspire everyone to seek the highest welfare of
others as the goal of their own progress toward Buddhahood. Shinran
caught the spirit of Pure Land teaching, and it inspired him in his
mission to communicate Amida's compassion to the masses in Eastern Japan
where he settled after exile.
Shinran's Self Understanding
When we turn to Shinran's self-understanding and
religious orientation, we can observe his deep personal involvement and
awareness of the compassion of Amida. He declared that Amida's work of
five kalpas was for him, Shinran, alone. Awareness of Amida's compassion
grounded a strong self-concept and personality. On several occasions, he
declared that no matter what others think or say of him, he will follow
the truth he has received.
In the light of Amida's compassion, he could see through the facade of
social life, and declared that all the world is a lie, a deception. Only
the Nembutsu is the final truth. At the same time, he recognized his own
limits in making judgments. He states that if I knew good as Amida knows
good, then I would truly know good. If I knew evil as Amida knows evil,
I would truly know evil.
Shinran writes:
"You should know that this shinjin (true faith) is bestowed through the
compassionate means of Sakyamuni, Amida, and all the Buddhas in the
quarters. Therefore, you should not disparage the teachings of other
Buddhas or the people who perform good acts other than nembutsu. Neither
should you despise those who scorn and slander people of nembutsu;
rather you should have compassion and care for them ..." [1]
On a deeper level Shinran suggests that faith and
recitation of Nembutsu work a transformation in the believer. As we have
quoted above, the deepened awareness of self evil which comes through
the knowledge of Amida's compassionate Vow causes one to stop the evils
in which one may be engaged. The true mind of faith transforms the
passions. In Letter 19, Shinran states:
"Signs of long years of saying the nembutsu and
aspiring for birth can be seen in the change in the heart which had been
bad and in the deep warmth for friends and fellow-practicers..."
[2]
In general, as we survey the relation of ethics and faith in Shinran's
letters and the "Tannisho," it is clear that Shinran urged ethical
behavior. Such behavior is to be motivated by gratitude for the
salvation one has received through the Vow and in repayment of the
kindness of one's teachers and guides. Deep faith should bring about a
transformation of character inspiring proper behavior.
It is observable
that Shinran does not advocate a repressive ethic emphasizing abstention
from any worldly activity simply because it is worldly. He is against
calculating behavior that weighs odds and implies egocentrism. Rather,
he seems to suggest an ethic of displacement in which contemplation of
the Vow and the recitation of Nembutsu infuses an awareness of Amida's
compassion within the consciousness. In this way the believer
assimilates to the ideal of Amida, replacing negative forces by more
positive ones within the personality. With proper associations within
the community there would be positive reinforcement.
There are two other aspects of Shinran's thought which
indicate that his ethical concern does not simply mean reinforcement of
traditional ways. Particularly, Shinran appears to stress Buddhist
principles of human relations rather than Confucian. In Chapter five of
the "Tannisho," Shinran declares that he never said Nembutsu even once out
of filial piety. For Shinran, Nembutsu has a deeper meaning than simply
observing social obligation.
In Chapter six, Shinran declares that he does not even
have a single disciple. As a teacher he viewed himself on the same level
spiritually with his followers, since they all alike received faith
through Amida's working. Even disagreements with the teacher and
separation from him does not place the errant disciple in spiritual
jeopardy. Shinran rejected authoritarian control over his disciples.
Shinran moves religion beyond formalism and status and
sees it essentially as an altruistic endeavor. However, there could be a
basis for self-righteousness if a person were to believe that he was
doing good. Therefore, in order to avoid a competitive, self seeking
under the cover of piety, Shinran advances a realistic understanding of
the self and its devious manipulations. In his many confessions we
glimpse the dialectic of the two types of deep faith which we mentioned
earlier.
It should be noted that the emphasis on gratitude in
Shinran's writings has its basis in the awareness of imperfection and
defilement which reveals the impossibility of ever attaining the
necessary purity for achieving enlightenment through one's own efforts.
The recognition of human limitation, as well as
awareness of a deeper reality underlying our acts, is expressed in
Chapter four of the "Tannisho" where Shinran describes two types of
compassion. There is the compassion of the sages or saints, also a self
power compassion, and the Pure Land compassion.
In this chapter Shinran recognizes that everyone has
some aspiration to help others at some time. The problem in doing good
is not so much in knowing the good, but in knowing how to do good.
Shinran shows that when we act, as we must constantly do in the world,
we must understand the true nature of those acts. Our human acts never
measure up to the standard of Amida's perfect sincerity and
truthfulness. However, we are not to give up doing good where we can,
but recognize that the final outcome does not lie with us. Compassionate
action joins with the compassionate heart of reality which we find in
the depth of our own being. In effect, we must live and act in the world
with hopes but no expectations. We must have commitments but no demands.
Shinran's awareness of the ultimacy in Amida's
compassion expressed through the Nembutsu and in his own life determined
his approach to ethical issues. It also inspired a deep sense of mission
as indicated in his visionary experience in the Rokkakudo temple. In
this vision, the Bodhisattva Kannon appeared in the form of a monk. He
promised to be Shinran's helpmate in the work of embellishing the world
by taking the form of a woman. The vision points towards Shinran's
marriage and his effort to reach the masses. To embellish the world
refers to the qualities of the Pure Land which the Bodhisattva realizes
through his vows. Shinran aimed, in a sense, to bring the Pure Land into
this world through establishing a community of faith motivated by the
compassion of Amida which originally created the Pure Land.
Shinran's teaching offers a perspective of cosmic
meaning and humble human relations and actions. Shinran's self concept
and religious orientation rejects legalism and communal modes of social
control. Rather, he has established a spiritual standpoint whereby the
person seeks the highest welfare of those about him. He does not begin
with abstract rules and commands applied without compromise. Shinran's
approach encourages a flexibility and openness to life's situation and
problems based in the awareness of Compassion and the use of reason to
discover alternatives for the greater good.
Faith and Social Obligation
In the course of Shinshu history, there was constant
need to correlate the aspect of faith with social obligations. Shinran's
teaching was something misinterpreted by his followers to mean that one
could do as one pleased because Amida will save in any case. Some
followers acted in unethical ways, claiming such deeds had no effect on
salvation. Opponents of Pure Land teaching charged that it was an
anti-social and subversive teaching.
Shinran struggled with this problem frequently in his
letter. In Goshosokushu 4, Shinran cautions his followers about
forgetting the gratitude they owe to the many deities and Buddhas or
Bodhisattvas who aided them in many lives until they could encounter
Amida Buddha's Vow. They are to be compassionate toward those who
obstruct the Nembutsu teaching and say Nembutsu on their behalf quietly.
They are to act responsibly and avoid antinomian behavior which would
bring blame on their teachers and become the excuse for persecution by
officials. In any case, the Nembutsu followers are never to retaliate
against their opponents, but pray for their eventual salvation.
Shinran never fully resolved this problem. The issue
appears in the "Tannisho" and forms the background for discussion of Karma
in "Tannisho," Chapter 13. Later successors also undertook to define the relation
of faith and social practice in the concept of two truths þ absolute
and conventional.
According to this principle, there are two aspects to
our lives. Faith, the sphere of absolute truth, represents the way to
rebirth in the Pure Land. Conventional, secular or worldly truth
represents the requirements for living in society. As these areas of
religious concern were viewed till modern times, the aspect of absolute
truth focuses on nurturing faith in one's mind, awaiting rebirth in the
Pure Land. This understanding reinforced the Other-Worldly character of
Pure Land teaching. Worldly truth was defined chiefly by Confucian
ethical philosophy, centering on filial piety and loyalty to one's lord
or the five constants or virtues of benevolence, righteousness,
propriety knowledge and faithfulness.
In the course of Shin Buddhist history a variety of
interpretations of the relation of the religious and secular spheres of
life emerged. Kakunyo, the third abbot exhorted followers to store up
faith inwardly, while externally observing the principles of Confucian
ethic. His son Zonkaku compared the two dimensions to the two wings of a
bird or wheels of a cart. Both aspects are mutually dependent on each
other. The eighth abbot Rennyo at times asserted the priority of the
secular law or Confucian ethic and at others the priority of the
Buddhadharma.
In the course of Shin history into modern times, a
variety of interpretations of the relationship of the two truths
emerged. Generally there are five possibilities. These are:
(1) the religious and secular truth are one truth
(2) they are parallel truths
(3) they are mutually related
(4) religious truth influences the secular
(5) the secular truth is upaya or compassionate means
Each of these relationships represents an effort to
clarify how a person of faith is to live in society, and in this case,
Japanese society which had many problems in opening itself to the modern
world. Prof. Takamaro Shigaraki critiques all the alternatives as
leading to the subservience of Buddhism to the social order. They all
assume Confucian morality as the basic ethical system, whereas Shinran
did not regard the value system of society as ultimate or absolute. For
Shinran, the world is a lie and deceptive. Thus in the "Kyogyoshinsho,"
Shinran quotes a sutra which declares that the monk (for him, the person
of faith) does not bow before the King, or to his parents nor serve the
six closely related persons such as mother, father, elder, younger
brothers, elder or younger sister.
As Shinran has shown us there is only one absolute þ
the compassion of Amida which transcends our limited human judgments of
good and evil. Shinran relativizes our egoistic claims, as well as all
worldly value systems. While we may not find specific answers to
contemporary problems in his writings þ or in Buddhism as a whole, he
provides us with an understanding of ourselves and the world which can
enable us to work toward more compassionate, humane solutions in concert
with those who also strive for the highest good.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In the modern social and intellectual context:
a) religious priorities have been will established b) early western students saw Buddhism as essentially a mystical
religion c) the spiritual influence of the major world religions has
weakened
2. Pure Land Buddhism has frequently been criticized as irrelevant by
modern people because:
a) it appears other-worldly b) Shinran laid down specific rules for
behavior c) it alone originated in the pre-modern period
3. The distinction of absolute and conventional truths
in Shin Buddhism was employed to:
a) criticize aristocratic elitism b) correlate faith and social
obligation
c) defend the existence of the Pure Land 4. The story of Dharmakara Bodhisattva in the
"Larger
Pure Land Sutra" is significant because it:
a) demonstrates the effect of wickedness b) demonstrates the Confucian basis of Buddhist
morality c) recognizes that political power alone is not sufficient to save
all beings
5. The importance of Honen in Japanese Pure Land
history lies in the fact that:
a) the way to enlightenment through Nembutsu did not
require a person to be rich, educated or even perfect in morality b) he married as a result of a vision in the Rokkakudo in
Kyoto c) his ethic emphasizes abstention from any worldly activity
6. The awareness of the two dimensions of faith in
Shinran's thought:
a) leads to the formation of a repressive ethic b) sets the limits of our
self-conception c) makes Shinshu a matter of communal faith
7. According to Shinran, ethical action is:
a) the true source of one's capacities and goodness b) not a requirement for
salvation c) based on traditional Buddhist precepts and disciplines
8. According to the author, Shinran moved religion
beyond:
a) Buddhist principles of human relations b) self-sacrificing
altruism
c) formalism and status
9. Shinran's view that all the world is a lie and
deception indicates that:
a) ethical action is required for salvation b) communal modes of social control are
necessary c) Amida Buddha is the standard for knowing good and evil
10. A major problem of the principle of Conventional truth and absolute
truth in Shin history has been that:
a) it tends to develop a self righteous and judgmental
attitude b) the theory leads to subservience of Buddhism to the social
order c) it negates the recitation of the Nembutsu
Thought Questions
1. What do you see as the foundation for ethical
activity and social participation in Shinran's thought?
2. Discuss the issue of Conventional and Absolute Truth in Jodo Shinshu.
Is it a useful distinction in relating society and religious faith?
Bibliography
Honganji International Center: "Shinran in the
Contemporary World"
Notes
[1] Y. Ueda, trans., "Letters of Shinran," p. 25.
[2] Ibid., p. 58. |
