Chapter 25.
Shin Buddhism in Encounter with a
Religiously Plural World
Introduction
It is a truism to say that we live in a cultural,
social, political, and religiously plural world. Through global
technological means of communication we are confronted daily with wide
diversities among peoples on every level of life. Such a human situation
presents a challenge to all major religious traditions which emerged out
of relatively isolated communities which has led their followers to
believe that they are the sole adherents to the only true religion.
In this effort to relate Shin Buddhism to contemporary culture we must
not lapse into indifference, claiming that all religions are alike. This
avoids the all-important question of truth which is implicit in
faith-experience. Neither can we withdraw in smug complacency from the
contemporary situation by maintaining we have the only truth. If our
faith is to be vital and relevant and if we are to participate in our
communities significantly, we must canvass the broadest wisdom of
humanity in all traditions, while fusing it with the faith-experience
drawn from our Shin Buddhist teaching.
Interaction with other religious traditions will
contribute to clarifying the meaning and significance of Shin Buddhism.
Though some people may be threatened by the apparent similarities of
Shin Buddhism and Christianity, such similarities can strengthen our
confidence in both traditions by understanding their universality.
Further, interaction with other religious perspectives
enables us to challenge and contribute to those traditions. Shinran's
realistic understanding of human nature, his critique of religion and
cosmic vision of compassion, as well as his religious style, are
important features which we can share with others.
Above all, it must be recognized and understood that
Jodo Shinshu, as a Buddhist tradition grounded in universal human
experience, is a World Religion. It is not merely a Japanese religion,
despite the fact that native Japanese or foreign-born Japanese-Americans
are its major constituency. Accidents of history should not obscure the
meaning of a teaching or the mission of a movement. Though Shin Buddhism
has become entwined with Japanese popular religious concerns over the
centuries, there is a new opportunity confronting the movement which has
permitted the distinctive character of Shin Buddhism to be presented as
a significant spiritual alternative for modern people from all
backgrounds.
The World of Religion and Faith
Our consideration of Shin Buddhism and other religions
requires that we establish a backdrop for our reflections. There are a
variety of contexts and dimensions which make up the cultural and
religious environment of Shin Buddhism followers.
Shin Buddhism must relate to the World of Self -- one's own personal conditions and identity. There is the World of
Others, the social situation in which we find ourselves. There is the
Intellectual World focused in science which controls and shapes many
aspects of our contemporary life. Finally, there is the World of Nature
which sustains our physical and spiritual lives.
Together with the contexts in which we live and act,
there are a number of dimensions or concern which we must consider from
our faith standpoint. There is the Universal dimension which requires
that we transcend historic þ cultural boundaries to contribute to the
larger unity of all life and experience.
There is the Existential dimension which challenges us
to life and living in this world of time and space. We must center on
the concrete individual as the focal point of reality. The individual is
the basic unit of reality.
There is the dimension of Practicality. Religious
faith must offer an understanding of life which strengthens the inner
life of a person and enables the individual to rise above external
conditions of despair. Spiritual freedom releases the person from the
domination of circumstance and permits greater fulfillment of the
person's human potential.
Very important is the dimension of Community.
Religious faith must draw people together with a common sense of purpose
and mutual support in working for the realization of the universal
values of faith. It counters the privatization and isolation of
religious perspective which many people appeal to in order to avoid the
challenge of religious commitment in society.
We must take full account of this socio-cultural
context in exploring and understanding the role of Shin Buddhism today.
As a universal faith, it should participate in all aspects and realize
all dimensions by giving reality to our understanding of Amida Buddha,
and Buddha of Eternal life and Infinite Light. Within the scope of
meaning of Shin Buddhism we can be interreligious because we possess a
perspective transcending all symbol systems, intercultural in
transcending racial, national, cultural limits, and interpersonal in
transcending personal differences.
Conviction and Sectarianism
Firm religious faith is an absolute for the person
holding that faith. It is the truth and meaning of the person's life.
Strong commitments are a necessity of human life, and we all treasure
certain values and relationships as supremely important for our lives.
These commitments are personal, religious, or even political and social.
It appears to many that strong convictions are an
obstacle to religious dialogue and interfaith relations. Indifference
also is a barrier. It is important to understand that strong convictions
make dialogue and mutual understanding all the more necessary.
Nevertheless, strong conviction and identity are not
to be equated with sectarianism and the separateness that creates
religious conflict. In this context I am defining sectarianism as a
negative attitude which rejects and spurns all other faiths as false and
unworthy. It usually compares our best with the other's worst, ending in
condemnation or ignoring. In sectarianism others are always wrong.
Consequently, there should be no fear that interfaith relations would
necessarily weaken one's faith or require muting it.
In contemporary
dialogue it is generally understood that we must stand by our
convictions while recognizing and affirming the reality of the other
person who also has strong convictions.
Shinran stands within the Pure Land tradition. His religious experience
heightened his religious sensitivities, and also provided the basis for
the critique of alternative Pure Land teachings as well as other
religious views. Inheriting the True Teaching of the Pure Land from his
teacher Honen, Shinran held exclusivistic views. He believed he had
perceived a truth which was absolutely essential for the spiritual
liberation of all beings.
While it is clear that he held strong convictions
about Pure Land teaching, as other Kamakura teachers did in their
respective traditions, Shinran never condemned others or ridiculed them.
He never consigned anyone to damnation simply because they did not agree
with him. The only person he believed worthy of hell was himself as a
passion-ridden being, totally incapable of the necessary purification
for enlightenment. Shinran constantly exhorted his followers to be aware
and grateful that all the gods and buddhas have made it possible for us
to encounter the Primal Vow. In addition, he cautioned his disciples not
to bring discredit to the movement by disrespectful activities.
Consequently, we can observe two sides to Shinran's
approach. On the one hand, he enunciates clearly the distinctive
features of his teaching that distinguish it from others. On the other,
he urges his followers to be conciliatory to and respectful of
alternative views. Though he had firm convictions which inspired his
life, he clearly understood his limitations. He was not dogmatic,
claiming that he knew what was good for others better than they did
themselves. After discussion with some inquirers about the teaching, he
declared "it is up to you to decide." (Menmen no onhakarai
nari), "Tannisho," Chapter two.
Shinran's Critical Classification of Doctrines
In Buddhism, the search for truth took the form of
classifications of teaching aimed at demonstrating the superiority of
one's own teaching. Buddhism generally distinguished true, perverted, and
pagan (outside) teachings. True teaching refers to the correct Dharma
taught by Buddha. Perverted, false teaching indicates deviations within
Buddhism -- like heresy that confuses people about the truth. Pagan
teachings are alternatives outside the Buddhist tradition such as
Hinduism, Confucianism, and Taoism. It might include Shinto and
Christianity in more recent times.
There is the general distinction of
Naido, the "inside" way of Buddhism and Gedo, paths outside
(of Buddhism). All major schools, particularly in the Mahayana
tradition, have formulated such systems. One of the most comprehensive
was the Tendai.
Shinran was originally a student of Tendai. He developed
his own system, taking over some terms used in Tendai, as well as Pure
Land tradition. Shinran's own formulation was drawn from Pure Land terminology but
defined in a way to highlight his view of absolute Other Power. The
system is known as two pairs and four levels. [1] Through this system,
all forms of Buddhism can be assessed in relation to the Primal Vow. The
terms are symbolic of differing spiritual attitudes and practices. They
combine into four levels.
Shinran's critical classification of teachings is
based on four concepts which depict aspects of spiritual development in
all traditions. The first Shutsu means to go out (of Samsara) in a round
about or gradual fashion. Cho refers to the aspect of transcension or
direct and immediate attainment. It contrasts to the step by step mode.
Ju is vertical and represents self-striving by means of difficult
practices. O is described as horizontal or crosswise. It has the sense
of Sudden and represents Other Power and the Vow.
The four characteristics are combined into four levels
representing the major Buddhist traditions and practices leading to
enlightenment and Buddhahood. According to Shinran the combination of
Jushutsu depicts the Theravada (known to Shinran as Hinayana), Hosso (Yogacara
Consciousness only) and Sanron (Three Treatise) schools. The teachings
of these schools require long aeons of practice before attaining the
goal. They are provisional teachings centered on self-striving methods.
We may compare this approach to swimming on one's own strength across a
stream. Jucho is the mode which categorizes the Kegon, Tendai, Shingon
and Zen paths. They rely on self-striving but offer a way to direct,
immediate attainment as True Mahayana teachings. They are illustrated by
a person pole vaulting across the stream.
Oshutsu is self-striving Pure Land which employs the
meritorious recitation of the Name and good deeds. The teachings of the
"Sutra of Contemplation" and "Smaller Amida Sutra" represent this aspect. It is provisional Pure Land teaching. We should note that the
recitation of the name is partially Other Power because Amida has
embodied his virtue in his name. This is the basis of the
efficaciousness of the recitation in this mode. We may compare this
aspect to a person grabbing hold of a life preserver which has been
thrown to her.
Ocho is the highest category for Shinran and suggests
Absolute Other Power of the Universal Vow and is taught in the Larger
Pure Land Sutra. It is the realization of Shinjin, endowed trust. It may
be seen in the plucking of a drowning person who has exhausted her
resources from the stream.
The critical classification system reflects the
exclusivistic perspective in Buddhism and other religions. We may note
that there is a similar approach in Christianity in the distinction of
Old and New Testament. Paul in the New Testament distinguishes between
the milk and meat of the Word. [2] In one text he indicates that as a child
he thought in childish ways, but when he became a man, he put away
childish things. [3] In all traditions there are elementary, temporary
levels which are transcended when the truth is manifest. Such views
assist in distinguishing varying interpretations of teaching and levels
of practice.
Nevertheless, while Shinran was influenced by some
aspects of the Tendai critical classification of doctrine, he also drew
on its unifying, synthesizing aspect. He formulated a group of concepts
termed Kensho-onmitsu or On-Ken. Ken and Sho have the meaning to
manifest, exhibit or reveal. On has the sense of hidden or covered,
while mitsu is hidden. [4] The distinctions have some affinity with esoteric
(secret) teaching and exoteric (manifest) teaching in Shingon and Tendai
Buddhism.
In Shinran's thought, these distinctions, however,
were employed to correlate the varying religious tendencies and styles
represented among the three Pure Land Sutras that are the basis for the
Pure Land teaching. Consequently, on the manifest, surface level the
three sutras correspond to the religious styles of the 19th Vow
("Meditation Sutra"), 20th Vow ("Amida" or "Shorter
Sutra") and 18th Vow ("Larger Pure Land Sutra"). The 19th Vow is the way of morality, virtue
and meditation, while the 20th Vow is that of self-power Nembutsu, and
the 18th Vow is the way of faith of the Universal Primal Vow. It is
absolute Other Power.
On the hidden level which is perceived through faith
as the deeper meaning (sho) of the 18th Vow, all these apparently
disparate teachings are unified as the expression of Amida's fundamental
purpose to save all beings through his Vow. All teachings are at once
different (with respect to each other), but the same (with respect to
the Vow). Although in his explanation, Shinran focuses on the three
specific sutras in applying this theory, it is clearly open to wider
application to other forms of Buddhism, and perhaps, other forms of
religious expression.
The Relation of Shin Buddhism and Other Religions
Another aspect can be brought together with these concepts. This is his
view of Amida Buddha as the Eternal Buddha -- the ultimate reality that
is the ground and basis of all that is. Essentially Shinran drew from
Tendai and Kegon philosophy. Their universal, unifying perspectives held
that everything in the cosmos from the most inferior to the most exalted
aspect is a manifestation out of the all-inclusive Buddha-nature which,
for Shinran, is most comprehensively expressed in Amida Buddha. As he
indicates in the Jinenhonisho (Treatise on Truth As It Is), Amida Buddha
is the medium by which we come to know the formless and colorless
(indefinable) Body of Truth (Dharmakaya). [5]
Amida Buddha is the direct expression of the
Dharmakaya and is called the True Body of Recompense. Everything
ultimately finds its root in Amida Buddha. All Gods, Buddhas, and
spiritual beings or symbols are manifestations from the Dharmakaya qua
Amida Buddha in order to guide beings to Enlightenment.
From this perspective, it is possible to view other
religions, each in their own historical and spiritual development, as
means by which the compassion of the Buddha has also expressed itself to
those people in their given context.
This view, as a matter of spiritual conviction,
implicitly suggests that the vantage point for seeing these
relationships derives from a faith standpoint in which one's own faith
is supreme. Nevertheless, this does not require the assertion of
superiority. It is rather a fact of the nature of religious
consciousness and commitment. Many religious traditions have similar
structures. Hinduism sees everything as manifested and unified in the
Brahman. Christianity offers the logos doctrine. One does not
necessarily intend the denigration of another faith if one's
understanding of the ultimate and essential unity of faith is seen
through the prism of one's own faith. The only alternatives are a vapid
indifference which avoids challenge or a purely secular approach which
reduces all religion to purely historical or socio-cultural factors.
The World religions, as they developed in history,
attempted to unify reality through universal principles focused on a
single reality. It is incumbent on World religions to formulate a
comprehensive understanding of the plurality of religious expressions
which relates them positively to the all-embracing reality encountered
through religious experience. In earlier times, it may have been
possible to devalue discrete religious experiences in favor of the
universal principle. However, it is now necessary to take seriously the
reality of religious pluralism in its many forms and on its own terms,
accepting and rejoicing in the diversity of human religiosity, while
still perceiving the basis of unity through one's own religious
experience.
Religious people, as well as Shin Buddhists, must
recognize that religious reality transcends all words and concepts.
Though one may find the Shin mode of expression fully adequate to
interpret human life and direct human hopes, we cannot deny that others
may find different means. The embrace of the Vow suggests that we accept
people as they are in whatever condition they are. If they come to the
Shin understanding, that is fine, but it is not a qualification for the
affirmation of their being and faith.
Shin Buddhism has the perspectives and conceptual
means to relate positively to the religious environment of our age and
to work constructively with others. Such interaction should work to
strengthen Shin faith based on the perception of the grand scope of
Amida's compassion working within the life of among all peoples and
within the cosmos.
What Can Shin Buddhism Receive from Interfaith
Relations?
As Shin Buddhism emerges from cultural and religious
isolation and enters into the multi-faith environment, it can benefit
from serious dialogue with other faiths by vitalizing, clarifying, and
strengthening its own religious perspective. Through such relations, the
challenge and significance of Shin insight will become better known and
offer a potential alternative for religious seekers. In some areas, such
as social awareness, we may become more sensitive and involved in our
communities in trying to resolve problems. In general, through positive
relations with other traditions, we gain insight and resources which can
stimulate spiritual growth within the Shin community.
What Can Shin Buddhism Offer to Contemporary Society?
All world religions attempt to share their teaching
with all humanity. There is no world religion which is not in some way
missionary. Mahayana Buddhism is essentially a missionary religion and
this impetus appears in Shinran's writings, particularly his emphasis on
the phase Jishin Kyoninshin, which means essentially to share one's
faith with others.
The modern spiritual issues are not altogether
dissimilar from earlier ages since human nature has not changed. There
are differences in the scope and complexity of problems, Religious faith
can shape attitudes and priorities in approaching those problems.
Consequently, Shin Buddhism can assist in considering the many problems
based on the insights and implications of Shinran's teaching.
In brief, we may point out that Shin Buddhism by its
nature is not an authoritarian religion. It offers insight but does not
impose. While it may be missionary, it is not insensitive to the views
and values of others. Shinran would not excommunicate dissident
followers.
It is a personalistic faith in maintaining the respect
and dignity of the individual. Shinran spoke and wrote to his followers
using the polite language form. He regarded his associates as fellow
believers and practicers (ondobo ondogyo) rather than as
"disciples" (deshi). Shinshu is fundamentally an egalitarian
faith.
His teaching aimed to give assurance and release
people from religious fears and intimidation. His rejection of magic and
superstition virtually gave up any control over the spiritual destiny of
people through threats of retribution.
His emphasis on Other Power and gratitude, together
with his interpretation of endowed trust-faith, undercut the egoism and
self-righteousness that informs the attitudes of many adherents. There
is no legalism or moralism in Shinran's teaching that would support
people comparing themselves with others to demonstrate their spiritual
superiority.
In the theological area, the background of Mahayana
teachings such as voidness counterbalance the popular theistic ways of
talking about Amida or God. Amida is not a God. Mahayana philosophy
understands the necessity of using language but qualifies it as only an
approximation of truth and not to be literally insisted on. It makes
Buddhism and Shin Buddhism a more open religious environment, while
still maintaining a clear commitment. Buddhist perspective can enliven
and enrich aspects of other traditions which may not be more literalist
or objectivist in character.
These are only a few areas where Shin Buddhism can
contribute to religious dialogue and interaction. There are many others
which can be drawn from the text. We bring these forward, aware of
certain needs in contemporary society. However, they are not exhaustive.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The author suggests that, in our attempt to live as
Shin Buddhists in a religiously plural world, it is best to:
a) become indifferent, believing all religions are the
same b) interact with other religious traditions so as to clarify our own
identity and faith c) ignore alternative viewpoints on the issues of
existence
2. The author mentions several dimensions which we
must consider from the standpoint of faith. Which of the following is
the dimension that challenges us to life and living in this world of
time and space?
a) The Universal Dimension b) Existential Dimension c)
The Dimension of Practicality
3. Shin Buddhism:
a) presents a perspective that transcends all symbol
systems b) Shin Buddhism is undoubtedly superior to other forms of religious
teaching and, thus, has much to offer c) Shin Buddhism has a strong identity of its
own
4. Which of the following statements describing the
nature of strong religious conviction is false? It:
a) need not be an obstacle to
religious dialogue b) is always an indication of sectarianism c) does not require the negation of other forms of
faith
5. What was Shinran's perspective on religious
alternatives? He:
a) condemned other religious traditions b) excommunicated followers who did not agree with his
teachings c) urged his followers to be respectful of other teachings
6. Generally speaking, in Buddhism the category of
teachings referred to as pagan teachings are:
a) alternatives outside Buddhism b) perverted, false teachings within the
tradition c) false teachings outside the tradition
7. Shinran's own critical classification of doctrines
is known as:
a) gon and jitsu b) the crosswise transcendence c) the two pairs and four
levels
8. What potential does Shin Buddhism hold in terms of
its relation with other religions?
a) it can act as a means for assessing the religious
faith of others
b) it has a conciliatory attitude that promotes broad respect for others
c) its dogmatic approach is ideal for interfaith dialogue
9. What can Shin Buddhism receive from interfaith
relations?
a) the result can be a clarification and
revitalization of its own religious perspectives b) it can get the insight and resources to stimulate growth among its
own followers c) both a & b
10. What can Shin Buddhism offer contemporary society?
a) a form of religion that is superior to all other
religions b) the ideal model of religious institutionalization c) an egalitarian faith that maintains the respect and dignity of the
individual
Thought Questions
1. What can the Shin Buddhist gain by interacting with
and engaging in dialogue with other religious traditions? What can she
or he offer?
2. Although he held strong convictions, Shinran was not dogmatic. He
clearly understood his limitations. In interfaith dialogue, do you think
Shinran's humble attitude would be regarded as a sign of passivity and
weakness? Why or why not?
3. Having reflected upon this final chapter, do you
now feel that you would like to someday take part in interfaith
discussions? Why or why not?
4. In your opinion what are some of the areas in which
Shin Buddhism can contribute to religious dialogue in contemporary
society?
5. Would you encourage your own temple (if you are a
member) to take part in interfaith dialogue? Why or why not? Do you
think there would be opposition to this idea? If so, by whom?
Bibliography
Ishihara (now Yokota), John S: "The Shin Buddhist
Doctrine of Amida and the Self in the Light of Christian Buddhist
Dialogue." Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis.
Masutani, Funio: "A Comparative Study of Buddhism and
Christianity"
Thelle, Notto R: "Buddhism and Christianity in
Japan"
Notes
[1] Shin Buddhism Translation Series, "The True
Teaching, Practice and Realization of the Pure Land Way," IV, p. 531
[2] I Corinthians 3:2.
[3] I Corinthians 13:11
[4] Shin Buddhism Translation Series, "The True
Teaching, Practice and Realization of the Pure Land Way," IV, pp.
484-85; 506-10.
[5] See Unit XIII, pp. 1-2. |
